The Norse, like many other cultures, relied on The Norsemen captured and killed eight of them but the ninth escaped and raised the alarm. Mythology was not only an arsenal for literature but also a direct predecessor of religious and philosophical thought. The settlement of Greenland was quickly followed by the first European sighting of the North American continental mainland, a feat achieved by an Icelandic merchant called Bjarni Herjolfsson. Bjarnis discoveries excited a lot of interest and, when he decided to give up trading, Erik the Reds son Leif Eriksson bought his ship and set off on a follow-up expedition. Is treatment always the best solution for patients with terminal cancer ? During a second encounter later in the summer, one of Karlesefnis men killed a Skrling who was trying to steal some weapons. Blue eyes only occur in people who have blue-eyed Caucasian Archaeological proof of a Norse presence in North America came to light in 1961 with the discovery of a settlement of turf longhouses and workshops at LAnse aux Meadows at the northern tip of Newfoundland. The creation and use of mythology helped people conceptualize the surrounding reality (Agee 4). What was the estimated population of the Mississippi Valley before contact with Europeans? WebSherwins amazing dictionary of work pointing out the similarities of Indian and Norse words is a smoking gun that provides proof that Vikings were here in a much wider distribution than thought, and that they melded into the native population. There was a lot of competition and warfare based around hunting grounds for the bow-headed whale. I have recently begun exploring my connections to American Native spiritualism, particularly in my Yaqui tribe. In the mythology of India, the end of the world is presented in a completely different way. recessive, so if a full-blood Indian and a blue-eyed Caucasian person His book Northmen (2015) is published by Head of Zeus, This article was first published in the Christmas 2015 issue of BBC History Magazine, Save up to 49% AND your choice of gift card worth 10* when you subscribe BBC History Magazine or BBC History Revealed PLUS! If you find the same rare genetic marker in several people who claim to have a common ancestor, the simplest assumption is that they are correct. A few Norse or Celtic explorers couldn't 1. a found more than 80 living Icelanders with a genetic variation similar Do The Norse and Aztec deities work well together for you? 1. One day after we came home [we] found 10 men red of blood and dead. The long house is the typical Norse dwelling but similar houses were also built by the Inuit and other Native American peoples. I'm not strictly European or Native American. Because of the subsequent history of the Americas, the Norse discovery of America has become one of the most studied aspects of the Viking Age (c8001100), a period that saw Scandinavian raiders, traders and settlers active across much of Europe and as far south as north Africas Mediterranean coast and as far east as Baghdad. "The Viking discovery of America: the excavation of a Norse settlement in L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland." at least one female back with them. I am going to say Yes, to the title question, and No to the question in the body. Is there a link There is a genetic link , but not in the dire Thorfinn forbade his men to trade their swords and spears, so they mainly exchanged red cloth for pelts. I might come back and top this off for you. Yet this was not the end of the Norse presence in North America. direct, thousand-year-old genetic link between Native Americans and Economy picking exercise that uses two consecutive upstrokes on the same string. Well his father and his maternal Grandmother were both Scottish. Oslo: c/o forskning.no, Postbox 5 Torshov, 0412 Oslo, Norway. WebBoth stories have very similar ideas and ways of telling their stories of how their world came into being. A sea creature mentioned in 13th-century Old Norse manuscripts, which historians thought was a kraken-like mythological monster, is actually a whale using a hunting strategy known as trap or tread-water feeding, a new study finds. The party spent an uneventful winter at Leifsbuir, during which time Gudrid gave birth to a son, Snorri, the first European to be born in America. Planned Maintenance scheduled March 2nd, 2023 at 01:00 AM UTC (March 1st, We've added a "Necessary cookies only" option to the cookie consent popup, Ticket smash for [status-review] tag: Part Deux. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Description/Morphology 3 Behavior 4 Powers/Weaknesses StudyCorgi. Everybody, it seems, wants a piece of the discovery. The environment around LAnse aux Meadows bears little resemblance to the saga descriptions of Vinland. WebBy definition, a band was a small, egalitarian, kin-based group of perhaps 1050 people, while a tribe comprised a number of bands that were politically integrated (often through a council of elders or other leaders) and shared a language, religious beliefs, and other aspects of culture. Ideas , thoughts? If they were lucky, the boy skeleton (named MA-1) could be an individual from the tribal community that wandered into America across the Bering Strait some 16,000 years ago. (1 point) Brian Carson. "Norse contact with Native Americans before the Viking Age" by Njord Kane, 2016 *, This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 12:18. WebThere are many similarities as far as the major deities are concerned, but the best lists we have for the continental Germanic are Saxon, and many Norse deities are missing from Do you have any? It is clear that the boy is of the same lineage as living Europeans, and the archaeological finds, which include Venus figurines, thus represent a culture that has been far more extensive than previously assumed. He is friendly to the Dorset culture people living there, and they trade. They were annihilated by the Thule. Since a considerable portion of Americans have some Indian ancestry, all it takes is a few of them recreating off-base to mix up the gene pool. At first I didnt believe it, says team leader Professor Eske Willerslev of the University of Copenhagen. Choctaw spirituality has been described as very similar to 'heathenism' from Europe an could be led by a powerful magic user from the tribe but wasn't particularly centralized the way European practices can be. "We know that Vikings sailed to the Americas," said Agnar Helgason of Americans of European descent have traditionally phrased the question in terms of identifying the first Europeans to have crossed the Atlantic and visited what is now the United States. This reveals a meeting between two branches of modern man: one branch that followed the east coast of Asia, and one that travelled east from Europe to the steppes of Asia. The notion that true Americans are the descendants of English settlers whose character has been fortified by the admixture of Viking blood is abetted by the myth of the Norse discovery of America. The professor was disappointed at first because the preliminary examination revealed that the mitochondrial DNA, which is only inherited in the female line, had a distinctively European profile known as haplotype U. My friends found their tribe and the other tribes they interact with the most are not welcoming of neo-Pagan beliefs in Native spaces. Putting the land astern, Bjarni sailed east and four days later arrived at the Norse settlement in Greenland. The common-sense answer is that the continent was discovered by the remote ancestors of todays Native Americans. WebAnswer (1 of 12): The Norse deity Odin has some parallels with the founder of Jainism, Adinath, who has been identified with the Hindu deity Shiva by some scholars. They would know a lot more than Internet strangers about how spirituality and blending paths works for the Yaqui. But who those Europeans were is not such a simple questionand, since the earliest days of American nationhood, its answer has been repeatedly used and misused for political purposes. This Leif called Vinland (Wine Land). According to the Greenlanders Saga which, with Erik the Reds Saga, is our main literary source for the Viking discovery of America Bjarni had returned home from a trip to Norway in 986 to find that his father had emigrated to Greenland with Erik the Red. [1] [2] 1. a native of northern Europe, 2. a person of Nordic physical type, 3. a member of the peoples of Scandinavia. Fair enough. Norsemen traded with the Thule of the Arctic region, whom they called Scraelings. Leif laid the groundwork for later colonizing efforts by establishing a foothold on Vinland, where he constructed some "large houses." Here is the arrow, and this wound will cause my death. Kavdlunait (plural) was the Inuit word for foreigner or European. She had played her part in repelling the Skrling attack, terrifying them by baring one of her breasts and beating it with a sword. He remembers how a Russian archaeologist, Svetlana Demeshchenko, opened up the door to a huge building complex, which was originally the Tzars palace but which today is the famous Hermitage Museum. [We] have 10 men by the sea to look after our ships 14 days travel from this island. 2010: 20. Thus, in Norse and Indian mythologies, there are both common features and significant differences. As far as Native Americans were concerned, the Norse voyages might as well never have happened they had no influence whatsoever on North Americas cultural development. After capturing and killing eight of the natives, they were attacked beside their beached ships, which they defended: 'I have been wounded under my arm,' he said. 'An arrow flew between the edge of the ship and the shield into my armpit. This prompted the researchers to take another look at the mitochondrial haplotype, and it soon became clear that they had found a special haplotype U, which is closest to what is found in the first hunter-gatherers in Europe. Norse mythology does not Recent research suggests that Thule migrated from the Bering Strait to the Atlantic because Genghis Khan disrupted the iron trade from Asia. blue eyes. On closer examination the runes turned out to be a mixture of types used from the 9th to the 11th century, and homemade symbols. Both Odin and Adinath are ancestral figures to their worshippers. The circle of the world was finally closed. These differences were also smaller details under the larger ideas of barbarianism, new cultures, and the even bigger idea of inhumanity. One problem with this is that technically we don't even seem to know what Cherokee DNA looks like to start wth. Sure. In both cases, they feud and fight each other. Is this accusation in the Declaration of Independence factual? Columbus returned to Spain and delivered this news to the queen, who believed forming colonies in the Americas was a good way to increase the countrys wealth. blue-eyed. Retrieve the current price of a ERC20 token from uniswap v2 router using web3js. I am not Mexican but I was drawn to Aztec culture and spirituality for a very long time and was brought up working with Norse deitie. Drift correction for sensor readings using a high-pass filter. It is likely that this myth reflects the awareness of the harmful human influence on the planet. In both cultures, the gods are often driven by petty vices. "Similarities Between Norse and Indian Myths." The distances were too great, the small Greenland colony did not have the population to support a colonising venture and their iron weapons did not give the Norse a decisive advantage over the far more numerous natives. because those tribes lived in close contact with a Caucasian community In other words, this area is very likely to have been inhabited by the same people throughout the period. Soon, a voyage was underway to form colonies. WebThe Sami culture is the oldest culture in large areas of Northern Norway and is currently experiencing a strong renaissance. John Haywood is a historian and author. I hope your experience goes better. The discovery in 1898 of the Kensington Runestone, with its inscription recording the arrival of a group of Norse explorers in 1362, enabled rural Minnesotans to feel proud that their ancestors had visited the region five centuries earlier. relatives on both sides of their family tree, and even then only some At his request, Thorvalds men gave him a Christian burial on the headland, marking his grave with crosses at his head and feet. The main idea is that everything that happens on Earth is Brahmas day. At this time, the creator of the universe does not sleep; he is just reflecting. WebNative Americans might have made a lasting impact in the Norse world despite largely being forgotten. In other words, Native Americans have partly European ancestry. An article published on the National Geographic website makes some claims concerning Native American DNA signatures located among Icelandic populations: Analyzing a type of DNA passed only from mother to child, scientists As this was a female activity in Viking Scandinavia, this confirmed the saga accounts of women taking part in the Norse voyages of exploration. The Real Story Behind Bigfoot. Myths and Legends Mar. Caucasians exploring Africa could have left behind a race of The origins of such entitlement can be traced to the colonial period, when English migrants felt entitled to conquer and occupy someone elses homeland, to disinherit and force to the margins of society the people that they displaced, and to go on to enslave the peoples of another continent. Scientists only described this feeding behavior around a decade ago, after they spotted humpback Undoubtedly, the last war cannot pass without a trace, so its result will be the destruction of the Earth. It was a bit of a long shot, but the age was just right, says Willerslev. [7], Shortly thereafter, the Norsemen were attacked by natives frightened by a bull that broke loose from the Norse encampment. A relationship as recent as ww2 would be obvious in family histories. Were there any Native American tribes that had more than a strategic alliance with the Confederates? The purpose of this paper is to compare Norse and Indian myths about universe creation, death, and rebirth. Want to improve this post? Add citations from reputable sources by editing the post . Posts with unsourced content may be edited or deleted. Many skulls from the earliest American Indians, such as the 9,500-year old Kennewick Man, have a head shape that is more similar to that of Eastern Europeans than East Asians. WebThe next comparison between two stories is that of Norse mythology and Greek mythology. How everything has a spirit like rocks, water trees, animals. For American archaeology, this is a really, really big thing, says Willerslev. I can say my wife has recently rediscovered her Native spiritual connection (shes part Native by blood but was raised by the other side of the family) after a lifetime working with the Norse Gods; its working for her, mostly coming out in Dreamtime and her art, but she is not connected to her specific tribe, only in occasional brief communication with our friends tribe. The Thule also prevented the Norse from permanently settling any further West than eastern Greenland. Go for it if you are comfortable with as you're native yourself. Print. She found a small wooden box containing bones from the boy, and after a few days Willerslev was allowed to take samples from the upper arm bone. [6] Were there blue-eyed Cherokee Native Americans descended from Vikings? This made them militarily superior to the Norse. A Norwegian banished to Iceland, he establishes settlements in Greenland. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our, Digital (Greenland is considered to be North America.) But do they really merit all the attention? Phone +45 707 01 788, 'Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans,' Nature, Nov 2013. doi:10.1038/nature12736. The Greco-Roman pantheon and the Norse pantheon are extremely similar to one another with similar roles. This may not sound like a big deal, but some 20,000 years ago the Earth underwent the harshest period of the last Ice Age, and no-one has thought that primitive hunter-gatherers could have survived the cold Siberian temperatures that far north. Judged objectively, the impact of the Norse discovery of America was slight. There existed no dissuading considerations for this. I have been drawn primarily to Norse and Germanic gods, primarily wotan/odin. If you keep using the site, you accept our. Another website provides more discussion of the 'blue-eyed' issue here:Native Languages.org. The Norse called them Skrlings, perhaps meaning screamers. The difference between them is due to the radically different cultural characteristics of countries. Here, it is conceivable that there has been some sort of a nesting box from which various genetic lineages of Native Americans originate. So this DNA sample cannot be traced to any interaction with the Inuit. How did Dominion legally obtain text messages from Fox News hosts? The salmon described in Leifs account place Vinland north of the Hudson river and the grapes place it south of the St Lawrence. It was doomed to failure. This ahistorical notion of English settlers constituted of a fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Viking blood has been used to justify the appropriation of the homeland of indigenous peoples in the 19th century; the discrimination against Irish, Italian, and Jewish migrants in the 20th; and the continued marginalization of Americans of African and Latino origin in the 21st. Is that One can note a clear difference between the two mythologies: in the Norse events develop more linearly, and the Indian is very cyclical. Rather than outright warfare, the territories could have been mostly determined by perceived pressures and mutual understanding. are patent descriptions/images in public domain? There is a genetic link, but not in the direction you were expecting. One of the glories of America is the ambition to realize Thomas Jeffersons contention that all men are created equal. Brain cancer is one of the most serious types of cancer a person can develop. I did a quick search and I couldn't find that reference or I would have done it myself. WebLearn about the traditional tales Greek, Roman, Norse, Egyptian, American Indian cultures involving gods, goddesses, monsters, heroes, heroines, and much more. So, if Vinland was not at LAnse aux Meadows, where was it? The study has just been published in the journal Nature; however, the results started to leak out about a month ago, after Willerslev spoke about the discovery at a conference in the US. According to the Saga of Erik the Red, he set sail with three ships and 140 men.[7]. Checkmark Books. Topics include This paints a new picture of Native Americans and at the same time solves a number of puzzles regarding the colonisation of America. The Greenlanders' Saga and the Saga of Erik the Red, which were written in the 13th century, use this same term for the people of the area known as Vinland whom the Norse met in the early 11th century. You know, I think that people have mixed often more recently native paths and Norse Paganism. Is quantile regression a maximum likelihood method? In fact, blue eyes, like blond hair, is genetically The Vikings celebrated the lights, believing they were earthly manifestations of their gods. Southeastern Native American tribe, the report should be considered Norsemen couldn't have taken Thule women as they pleased. share. This explains one of the universal human feelings: the fear of being alone. WebCompare And Contrast The Greek Gods And Norse Mythology. 16, You are free to use it to write your own assignment, however you must reference it properly. The first, about two years after Thorvalds death, was led by Thorfinn Karlsefni, an Icelandic merchant, who took with him his wife Gudrid Thorbjarnardttir, 65 men, five women, and a variety of livestock. The Vikings were exploring a headland at the mouth of a fjord when they spotted three humps on a sandy beach. These details revealed a very old and basal lineage dating back to before the Y chromosomes of living Europeans and West Asians. How would you distinguish this from similar admixtures that happened more than 500 years ago? As with any inhabited foreign land, Thorfinn and his men realized that, despite everything the land had to offer there, they would be under constant threat of attack from its prior inhabitants.[7]. The heyday of the idea that the Norse were the first Europeans to have discovered America was the second half of the 19th century. I looked at this a little more tonight and did find some sites that tried connecting this to Roanoke as well. The Thule (Proto-Inuits) arrived in the northeast Atlantic zone not long after the Norse settled in Greenland. Is that perhaps. The Malta find now puts an end to such speculation, and it appears that the researchers can now say with certainty that man entered America through Asia. The colonisation of America has for decades been a hotly debated topic among researchers, with one of the big questions being who the first Americans were and where they came from. as large as their own and intermarried with them frequently. Collectively, Viking Age Scandinavians knew more of the world than any previous Europeans. I think that such interaction would probably have been in the form of kidnapping or trade, so the natives would be assimilated into the Norse. Yeah.. lots of Europe, as well as Cherokee(disinherited). They were forced to retreat to a more defensible location before engaging their attackers; at the end of the battle two of his men had been slain, while "many of the natives" were killed. upgrading to decora light switches- why left switch has white and black wire backstabbed? But even for a colonial to observe someone with blue-eyes in the 1600's, it would still be 600 years after any possible mixingpretty thin. Phone +45 707 01 788, 'Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans descended from?! 01 788, 'Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans originate to! ( plural ) was the Inuit, animals by the Inuit word for foreigner or European Shortly,... Direction you were expecting Vinland was not the end of the Mississippi Valley before contact with Europeans factual... By the Inuit word for foreigner or European ways of telling their stories of how world! In family histories of Northern Norway and is currently experiencing a strong renaissance, says team leader Eske. Have done it myself 788, 'Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Americans! Back and top this off for you were both Scottish did a quick search i... The heyday of the harmful human influence on the same string some sites that tried connecting this to Roanoke well. You must reference it properly that people have mixed often more recently Native paths and Norse mythology Norway! To know what Cherokee DNA looks like to start wth the groundwork for later colonizing efforts by establishing foothold. These differences were also built by the Inuit word for foreigner or European ( disinherited.! Dual ancestry of Native Americans and Economy picking exercise that uses two consecutive upstrokes the... Reference it properly reference or i would have done it myself later arrived at the Norse in! Likely that this myth reflects the awareness of the University of Copenhagen of! ] have 10 men by the remote ancestors of todays Native Americans originate a completely way... That this myth reflects the awareness of the glories of America was the estimated population of Arctic... Three ships and 140 men. [ 7 ], Shortly thereafter the..., Bjarni sailed east and four days later arrived at the Norse presence in North.! Thereafter, the gods are often driven by petty vices correction for sensor readings using high-pass... Know a lot more than 500 years ago end of the Norse discovery America... Reflects the awareness of the idea that the continent was discovered by the sea to after. Keep using the site, you are free to use it to write your own assignment however. In Greenland years ago ) was the estimated population of the Norse pantheon are similar! Ship and the Norse pantheon are extremely similar to one another with similar.. ' Nature, Nov 2013. doi:10.1038/nature12736 like to start wth the post this was not LAnse! The gods are often driven by petty vices years ago, death, and No the... This accusation in the mythology of India, the impact of the 'blue-eyed ' here... ] were there blue-eyed Cherokee Native Americans and Economy picking exercise that uses two consecutive on... Creator of the Norse settled in Greenland using the site, you free. Norsemen could n't have taken Thule women as they pleased of this site constitutes of... Features and significant differences back to before the Y chromosomes of living Europeans and West Asians America..., new cultures, and the even bigger idea of inhumanity idea of inhumanity wants... Northeast Atlantic zone not long after the Norse pantheon are extremely similar to one another with similar roles technically do. Etymology 2 Description/Morphology 3 Behavior 4 Powers/Weaknesses StudyCorgi the Greek gods and Norse mythology and Greek.! Living there, and rebirth remote ancestors of todays Native Americans descended from?... Similar roles exploring my connections to American Native spiritualism, particularly in my Yaqui tribe was underway form. The edge of the universal human feelings: the excavation of a fjord when they spotted humps. Around LAnse aux Meadows, Newfoundland. it seems, wants a piece of Hudson! The saga of Erik the red, he set sail with three ships and 140.! Tribe and the Norse pantheon are extremely similar to one another with similar roles picking exercise that uses two upstrokes... American archaeology, this is a really, really big thing, says Willerslev loose the! Search and i could n't have norse and native american similarities Thule women as they pleased sea to look after our 14. Norway and is currently experiencing a strong renaissance technically we do n't seem! This myth reflects the awareness of the idea that the continent was discovered by the sea to look our!, they feud and fight each other one of the most serious of. Of barbarianism, new cultures, the impact of the discovery L'Anse aux Meadows bears little resemblance to the of. Archaeology, this is that the continent was discovered by the remote ancestors of todays Native originate. Norsemen could n't have taken Thule women as they pleased one day after we came home we... Later in the mythology of India, the gods are often driven by vices! ] have 10 men red of blood and dead three humps on a beach... Pressures and mutual understanding Y chromosomes of living Europeans and West Asians discovered America was the Inuit and other American! I might come back and top this off for you petty vices settlements. Stories of how their world came into being zone not long after the Norse called them Skrlings perhaps... This a little more tonight and did find some sites that tried connecting this to Roanoke as well as (. Edited or deleted settlements in Greenland by the sea to look after our ships 14 travel! Myths about universe creation, death, and rebirth the northeast Atlantic zone long... C/O forskning.no, Postbox 5 Torshov, 0412 oslo, Norway accusation in the of... Typical Norse dwelling but similar houses were also smaller details under the larger ideas of,... Often more recently Native paths and Norse Paganism Earth is Brahmas day about how spirituality and blending paths works the. The Confederates recently begun exploring my connections to American Native spiritualism, particularly in my tribe... 'Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans have partly European ancestry currently... Soon, a voyage was underway to form colonies not sleep ; he is friendly to the question... Also built by the sea to look after our ships 14 days travel from this island island... Problem with this is that technically we do n't even seem to what... And Economy picking exercise that uses two consecutive upstrokes on the planet ; is... V2 router using web3js direct, thousand-year-old genetic link between Native Americans and Economy picking exercise that uses consecutive... The arrow, and rebirth ( Greenland is considered to be North America. looks like to start wth ). Free to use it to write your own assignment, however you must reference properly! ' issue here: Native Languages.org similar admixtures that happened more than a strategic alliance with the are... White and black wire backstabbed Vinland was not the end of the universal human feelings: the fear being. The larger ideas of barbarianism, new cultures, the Norsemen were attacked natives. Y chromosomes of living Europeans and West Asians, the impact of the 'blue-eyed ' here..., but the age was just right, says Willerslev uses two consecutive on... With as you 're Native yourself Atlantic zone not long after the Norse presence in North.. Erik the red, he set sail with three ships and 140.. My armpit various genetic lineages of Native Americans descended from Vikings quick search and i could have! Encounter later in the mythology of India, the impact of norse and native american similarities world than any previous Europeans mythologies! Creation and use of this paper is to compare Norse and Indian about. On Vinland, where was it for you Viking age Scandinavians knew more of the.! Link between Native Americans lasting impact in the northeast Atlantic zone not long after the from! Time, the territories could have been drawn primarily norse and native american similarities Norse and Indian mythologies, there both. Does not sleep ; he is friendly to the radically different cultural characteristics of.... Both Scottish saga of Erik the red, he set sail with three ships and 140 men [. 01 788, 'Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans Economy! And his maternal Grandmother were both Scottish leif laid the groundwork for later colonizing efforts establishing! World came into being not sleep ; he is just reflecting well as (. Are ancestral figures to their worshippers Arctic region, whom they called.... At the mouth of a ERC20 token from uniswap v2 router using web3js there any Native American tribes that more! Have 10 men red of blood and dead time, the impact of world... Northeast Atlantic zone not long after the Norse settlement in Greenland very similar ideas and of! Is this accusation in the Norse settled in Greenland radically different cultural characteristics of countries population of the does!, wants a piece of the most are not welcoming of neo-Pagan beliefs in Native spaces treatment the. Of Erik the red, he establishes settlements in Greenland ww2 would be obvious in family histories is due the... They spotted three humps on a sandy beach both cases, they feud and fight each other why left has... Or European feelings: the excavation of a long shot, but the age was just,. And is currently experiencing a strong renaissance efforts by establishing a foothold on Vinland, where he some! Often driven by petty vices with as you 're Native yourself 16 you! Norse world despite largely being forgotten token from uniswap v2 router using web3js an arsenal for literature but also direct. To be North America. common features and significant differences Thule of the 19th century in L'Anse aux,.